Isrā’īlīyāt (literally “things attributed to Israelites”) refers to a subgenre of Islamic sources that have a Jewish or Christian origin. After Islam swept the Near East in the seventh century, Muslims inherited a milieu rich with literature and lore. This tradition found its way into core Islamic texts, especially ḥadīth and tafsīr works. In some popular cases, Isrā’īlīyāt provides context to prophetic stories. Skeptics rejected these exegetical sources due to their dubious, pre-Islamic provenance. However, as we shall see, there is considerable evidence that the Isrā’īlīyāt had a subtler influence that has been difficult to detect until modern times. Since most Islamicists do not specialize in Jewish or Christian literature, it takes some interdisciplinary reading to detect this influence.
Glitch or feature?
The Isrā’īlīyāt problem is not a straightforward one. Since, in the Islamic understanding, all the prophets were divinely appointed Muslims, all their teachings were essentially Islam. Thus, any beliefs, stories, or maxims shared between Jews, Christians, and Muslims can be seen as emanating from the same divine source. The Prophet Muhammad did not claim to be founding a new religion, and so his religion cannot be expected to be entirely novel – it was a continuation of a celestial and natural faith. So, the Islamic stories of Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, Jesus, and other prophets naturally resemble their Biblical counterparts, even if they differ in some areas.
At the same time, the rapid expansion of Islam meant that Muslims would inherit at least some of the traditions of Jews and Christians. There were converts to Islam from Judaism and Christianity, and there is evidence of cross-pollination between various communities in matters of theology, philosophy, jurisprudence, exegesis, lore, eschatology, and everyday parlance. It is sometimes difficult to determine which pre-Islamic sayings were ossified in the Islamic tradition during its infancy stages, and which solely emanate from the mouth of the Prophet. Islamic scholarship was able to identify some of the early purveyors of Isrā’īlīyāt, namely Kaʿb al-Aḥbār (d. ~652 AD) and Wahb b. Munabbih (d. ~725 AD), but their usage of Isrā’īlīyāt was more explicit and obvious. As we shall see, there are examples that are nevertheless undeniable – ones that are sometimes attributed to the Prophet himself or his companions.
What complicates matters is that some Jewish sources, including the Talmud, do not have extant pre-Islamic manuscripts. While the Talmud was completed by the sixth century AD, the earliest fragments (from the Cairo Geniza) date to the ninth century, and the oldest complete manuscripts come centuries later. That therefore opens the possibility that Islamic sources may have influenced the contents of the Talmud, if one is amenable to the possibility that the Talmud underwent an evolution.
The sample below is not meant to be an exhaustive list of parallels. I am not the first researcher to find some of these examples.
Of fruits, shrubs and trees
In a ḥadīth recorded in Ṣaḥīḥ al-Bukhārī, related by Abu Mūsā al-Ashʿarī, the Prophet compares a believer who recites the Quran to a citron (which tastes and smells good), a believer who does not recite the Quran to a date (which tastes good and has no smell), a wicked person who recites the Quran to a sweet basil (which smells good but tastes bitter), and a wicked person who does not recite the Quran to a colocynth (which tastes bitter and has no smell).[1]
The Vayikra Rabbah, a midrash of Leviticus that probably goes back to the fifth century AD,[2] has a similar tradition: Israelites who have the Torah and good deeds are like a citron, Israelites who have the Torah and no good deeds are like a date, Israelites who have no Torah but have good deeds are like a myrtle (which smells good but has no taste), and Israelites who have no Torah and have no good deeds are like a willow (which has no taste or fragrance).[3]
My mercy prevails over my wrath
In Ṣaḥīḥ al-Bukhārī, Abu Hurayra narrates that the Prophet said that, when God created the world, He wrote the following words in His book on His throne: “My mercy overcomes My anger.”[4] Levi Jacober noted in his 1935 dissertation that this mirrors God’s prayer in the Talmud: “May it be My will that My mercy will overcome My anger toward Israel for their transgressions.”[5] [6]
God looks at the heart
In Ṣaḥīḥ Muslim, Abu Hurayra reports that the Prophet said, “God does not look at your appearance or wealth, but rather He looks at your hearts and actions.”[7] In the Bible, in 1 Samuel 16:7, God says, “the Lord does not see as mortals see; they look on the outward appearance, but the Lord looks on the heart.”
A horse’s bridle
In Ṭabarānī’s Muʿjam al-Kabīr, Shaddād b. Aws narrates that the Prophet said, “Poverty is more becoming for the believer than attractive bridle straps are for a horse’s cheeks.”[8] The same saying is attributed to ʿAlī b. Abī Ṭālib in Kulayni’s al-Kāfi.[9] The Talmud quotes a similar expression from a “folk saying that people say”: “Poverty is good for the Jewish people like a red bridle for a white horse.”[10]
Planting a tree in the End Times
In the Musnad of Aḥmad b. Ḥanbal and in the Musnad of al-Bazzār, the Prophet Muhammad reportedly says, “If the [Day of] Resurrection were established upon one of you, and in his hand is a sapling, then he should plant it.” In Bukhārī’s al-Adab al-Mufrad, the saying is attributed to ʿAbdullah b. Salām, the Medinan rabbi-turned-Muslim companion of Muhammad; it is rendered: “If you hear that the Antichrist (dajjāl) has appeared, and you were planting a sapling, then go ahead and plant it, for people will still have livelihood thereafter.”
There is evidence that, around the seventh century, Jews were attributing a similar saying to the first century Rabban Yohanan ben Zakkai: “If you are holding a sapling in your hand and someone tells you, ‘Come quickly, the Messiah is here!’, first finish planting the tree and then go to greet the Messiah.”[11] It is unclear whether the saying first appeared in Muslim circles or Jewish circles, but ʿAbdullah b. Salām’s version may give us a hint.
Adam the giant
In a ḥadīth that has become controversial in modern times, Ṣaḥīḥ al-Bukhārī records that Abu Hurayra related that the Prophet said that Adam (the first human) was sixty cubits in height.[12] In the Babylonian Talmud, Adam’s height was said to be one hundred cubits.[13]
Euphrates drying up
In Ṣaḥīḥ Muslim, Abu Hurayra narrates that the Prophet said, “The Last Hour would not come before the Euphrates dries up [and uncovers] a mountain of gold, for which people would fight.”[14] The idea that the Euphrates would dry up can be found in Revelation 16:12: “The sixth angel poured out his bowl on the great river Euphrates, and its water was dried up to prepare the way for the kings from the East.”
Elon Harvey points out that the Jewish apocalypse The Secrets of Simon ben Yohai (c. 8th century AD), commenting on Isaiah 45:3, says that a king will “build boats of bronze and fill them (with) silver and gold, and store them beneath the waters of the Euphrates”.[15] While it is unclear to me if the ḥadīth influenced the Jewish text or vice versa, Harvey points out that the ḥadīth does not provide the reason why the gold was beneath the Euphrates in the first place. Harvey also notes that, in the Syriac Gospel of the Twelve Apostles (c. 8th century AD), wealth is stored in the Tigris (rather than the Euphrates).[16]
A paradisal age
In Sunan al-Tirmidhī, there is a ḥadīth on the authority of Muʿādh b. Jabal that the Prophet said that the people of Paradise would be “thirty years of age or thirty-three years.”[17] Sean Anthony suggests that this may come from fourth century Syriac Christian exegetical sources, which say that Adam “was created at the age of thirty”, Jesus “came to baptism at the age of thirty years”, and “that believers would be resurrected at an age ‘attaining to the whole measure of the fullness of Christ,’ i.e., ~30-33.”[18]
An angel for pregnancy
In Ṣaḥīḥ al-Bukhārī, Anas b. Mālik reports that the Prophet said that God appoints an angel at every womb. God then determines if the drop of semen would develop into a child, if it would become male or female, if it will be wretched (shaqī) or happy (saʿīd), and how much provision it will have.[19] In the Babylonian Talmud, an angel is appointed at conception, and God determines if the drop of semen will become mighty or weak, clever or stupid, and wealthy or poor.[20] In the Talmudic version, God is not meant to determine if the child will be “wicked or righteous”. It is unclear if the ḥadīth in question is referring to the child being “wretched” or “happy” in life or in the Hereafter. If the latter, then it is taking a more deterministic stance than the Talmudic version.
Moses refusing death
Abu Hurayra narrates in Ṣaḥīḥ al-Bukhārī (without necessarily quoting the Prophet) that Moses refused the Angel of Death by slapping him in the eye, and then the angel told God, “You sent me to a servant who does not want to die.”[21] In the Amālī of Ṣadūq, Moses essentially guilts the angel into not taking his soul, without slapping him in the eye.[22] How these fare with 16:61 of the Quran is anyone’s guess. Ian Cook found a parallel in a halakhic midrash on Deuteronomy called Sifrei Devarim (c. 2nd century AD), in which Moses rebukes and scorns the Angel of Death, who then went back to tell God.[23]
A stowed treasure as a wedding gift
In a ḥadīth related by Abu Hurayra in Ṣaḥīḥ al-Bukhārī, the Prophet says, “A man bought a piece of land from another man, and the buyer found an earthenware jar filled with gold in the land. The buyer said to the seller, ‘Take your gold, as I have bought only the land from you, but I have not bought the gold from you.’ The [former] owner of the land said, ‘I have sold you the land with everything in it.’ So, both of them took their case before a man who asked, ‘Do you have children?’ One of them said, ‘I have a boy.’ The other said, ‘I have a girl.’ The man said, ‘Marry the girl to the boy and spend the money on both of them and give the rest of it in charity.’”[24]
In the Jerusalem Talmud, the same basic story is recounted: “… two people came for litigation before the king. Said one of them: ‘My master, the king! I purchased a ruin from my friend. I demolished it and found a hidden treasure inside it. So I said to him: Take your treasure. I purchased a ruin, not a treasure. And the other one said: ‘I sold you the ruin and everything in it—from the depths of the earth to the heights of heaven!’ The king asked one: ‘Do you have a son?’ Said he: ‘Yes.’ He then asked the other: ‘Do you have a daughter?’ ‘Yes.’ Said the king to them: ‘Let them marry each other, and the treasure and the ruin shall belong to the two of them.’”[25]
The Mote and the Beam
In Bukhārī’s al-Adab al-Mufrad, Abu Hurayra is quoted as saying, “One of you looks at the speck in his brother’s eye while he ignores the plank or log in his own eye.”[26] In the later collection Kanz al-ʿUmmāl, the quote is attributed to the Prophet.[27] This, of course, mirrors the New Testament saying of Jesus: “Why do you look at the speck of sawdust in your brother’s eye and pay no attention to the plank in your own eye?” (Matthew 7:3, Luke 6:41).
Blame Eve
In Ṣaḥīḥ al-Bukhārī, Abu Hurayra narrates that the Prophet said, “Were it not for the Children of Israel, meat would not decay; and were it not for Eve, no woman would ever betray her husband.”[28]
The idea that meat did not decay may mirror a point in the Mishnah, in Pirkei Avot 5 (c. 2nd century AD), which says that “the sacred flesh” (meat offered in the Temple) “never became putrid.”[29]
The idea of Eve being the raison d’etre for adulterous women is interesting, as the Quranic narrative on Adam and Eve does not single out Eve as being uniquely tempted by Satan. That is closer to the biblical narrative of Genesis 3:1-6, where the serpent tempts Eve with the fruit, and then Eve offers it to Adam.
The rarity of a good woman
In al-Kāfi, there is a quote attributed to the sixth Shia Imam Jaʿfar al-Ṣādiq in which he says, “A believing woman is more precious than a believing man, and a believing man is more precious than red sulfur. So, who among you has seen red sulfur?”[30] This mirrors a selection from the Bible: “A wife of noble character who can find? She is worth far more than rubies.” (Proverbs 31:10)
Seven Seals
In Baṣā’ir al-Darajāt by al-Ṣaffār, there is a tradition from Jaʿfar al-Ṣādiq in which he says that Gabriel gave the Prophet a scroll sealed with seven seals for him and his successors.[31] This reminds me of Revelation 5-6, where the Lamb is given a scroll with seven seals.
Quranic considerations
Many researchers have highlighted examples of biblical subtext in the Quran itself. Outside of more obvious parallels in the prophetic stories, there are some notable examples: the Throne Verse echoes Isaiah 40:28; Juan Cole argues that 4:153-155 shows directly familiarity with Nehemiah 9:12-26;[32] a Twitter user named al-ʿUkbarī found the same expression used in 3:187 and Nehemiah 9:26.[33] Gabriel Said Reynolds noted a number of similarities, including an argument that the covered hearts of 2:88 is a reference to the uncircumcised hearts in Jeremiah 9:26.[34]
The traditionalist response to this consideration is simple: the God of the Quran is using the same expressions that He revealed to previous prophets. What makes the ḥadīth corpus more complicated is its human facilitation. Since the ḥadīth corpus is a centuries-long oral tradition, it is harder to distinguish between “divinely-sanctioned” Isrā’īlīyāt and Isrā’īlīyāt that were lifted by fallible narrators.
Solutions?
This paper outlines the complexity of the Isrā’īlīyāt problem and raises concerns about the origins of some ḥadīth content. How can one determine what emanates from “Muhammadan Islam”, especially if the Isrā’īlīyāt problem is apparent among the earliest and most trusted Islamic sources?
First: it is important to promote interdisciplinary scholarship. Islamic scholars often lack expertise in Jewish or Christian texts, making it difficult for them to detect Isrā’īlīyāt. Knowledge of the Bible, the Talmud, and early Christian exegeses and liturgy will help identify influences. It is also important to understand the Arabs’ milieu at the eve of Islam.
Second: since rigorous isnād criticism is not enough to weed-out Isrā’īlīyāt, there should be a renewed emphasis on matn criticism. This should include detailed ḥadīth commentaries that cross-reference Jewish and Christian literature.
Third: not all Isrā’īlīyāt are equal, as some have theological considerations (such as Eve and adultery, or Moses and death), while others are usages of rhetorical devices (such as the bridle, or the citron), and others are prophetic lore that is only there to provide context. Scholars must create a clear taxonomy of Isrā’īlīyāt that are accepted (in harmony with Islamic principles), tolerated (neutral and non-conflicting), and rejected (contradicting the Quran and firmly established ḥadīth). This is practiced to a degree by both modern and premodern scholars, but it can be further systemized. Future research will inevitably expand the scope of this problem, which may promote more Quran-centric or ʿaql-centric approaches to Islam.
Fourth: the use of digital tools, like large language models and text-mining algorithms, can detect parallels across Arabic, Hebrew, Syriac, and Greek corpora. Traditions can be classified based on lexical and stylistic patterns. This will give us a more precise picture on the scope of the usage of Isrā’īlīyāt.
Fifth: it is sometimes difficult to distinguish between the Prophet’s words and the words of early narrators, as the latter can sometimes be attributed to the former (as may be the case with the ḥadīth of the sapling mentioned before). Historical critical tools must be used to better trace the origins of ḥadīth. Some primary narrators lived long lives away from the Prophet, interacting with ex-Jewish tābʿīn (like Kaʿb al-Aḥbār), and this may have influenced their traditions with Isrā’īlīyāt. Studying the cultural backgrounds of narrators and transmitters can also assist in identifying interreligious exchange.
Sixth: acceptance of some Isrā’īlī parallels as a basis for interfaith dialogue, a bridge toward peace, and a feature in Semitc religions. The Isrā’īlīyāt do not always have to be framed as a corruption or infiltration – they can be an opportunity to develop religious literacy and affirm ethical commonalities.
It is is important for Muslim thinkers to identify the best steps forward.
[1] Bukhari, Sahih al-Bukhari, hadith 5020. https://sunnah.com/bukhari:5020
[2] Jill Jacobs, “Midrash Rabbah: Rabbinic interpretations and discussions of the Bible”, My Jewish Learning, https://www.myjewishlearning.com/article/midrash-rabbah
[3] Vayikra Rabbah 30:12, The Sefaria Midrash Rabbah 2022, https://www.sefaria.org/Vayikra_Rabbah.30.12?lang=bi
[4] Bukhari, Sahih al-Bukhari, hadith 3194, https://sunnah.com/bukhari:3194
[5] Berakhot 7a, The William Davidson Talmud (Koren – Steinsaltz), https://www.sefaria.org/Berakhot.7a.3?lang=bi&with=all&lang2=en
[6] Levi Jacober, “The Traditions of al-Bukhari and their Aggadic parallels”, pp. 94, https://www.academia.edu/78766406/The_traditions_of_al_Bukh%C4%81r%C4%AB_and_their_aggadic_parallels
[7] Muslim, Sahih Muslim, hadith 2564, https://sunnah.com/muslim:2564c
[8] Tabarani, Mu`jam al-Kabir, volume 7, page 295, hadith 7181, https://www.islamweb.net/ar/library/content/84/7097/?idfrom=&idto=&start=
[9] Kulayni, al-Kafi, volume 2, page 265, hadith 22, http://shiaonlinelibrary.com/%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%83%D8%AA%D8%A8/1123_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%83%D8%A7%D9%81%D9%8A-%D8%AC-%D9%A2/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B5%D9%81%D8%AD%D8%A9_0?pageno=265
[10] Chagigah 9b, The William Davidson Talmud (Koren – Steinsaltz), https://www.sefaria.org/Chagigah.9b.12?lang=bi
[11] Jesse Davis and Bilal Muhammad, “Planting a Tree in the End Times: An Analysis of an Islamic and Jewish Saying”, Berkeley Institute for Islamic Studies, https://bliis.org/essay/planting-a-tree-in-the-end-times-an-analysis-of-an-islamic-and-jewish-saying/
[12] Bukhari, Sahih al-Bukhari, hadith 6227, https://sunnah.com/bukhari:6227
[13] Bava Batra 75a, The William Davidson Talmud (Koren – Steinsaltz), https://www.sefaria.org/Bava_Batra.75a?lang=bi
[14] Muslim, Sahih Muslim, hadith 2894, https://sunnah.com/muslim:2894a
[15] John C. Reeves, Nistarot (Secrets of) R. Shimon b. Yohai, https://pages.charlotte.edu/john-reeves/research-projects/trajectories-in-near-eastern-apocalyptic/nistarot-secrets-of-r-shimon-b-yohai-2/
[16] J. Hendel Harris, The Gospel of the Twelve Apostles Together With the Apocalypses of Each One of Them, pp. 14, https://www.academia.edu/44778539/THE_GOSPEL_OF_THE_TWELVE_APOSTLES_TOGETHER_WITH_THE_APOCALYPSES_OF_EACH_ONE_OF_THEM_EDITED_FROM_THE_SYRIAC_MS_WITH_A_TRANSLATION_AND_INTRODUCTION
[17] Tirmidhi, Sunan al-Tirmidhi, hadith 2545, https://sunnah.com/tirmidhi:2545
[18] https://x.com/shahanSean/status/1797765325775360012/photo/2
[19] Bukhari, Sahih al-Bukhari, hadith 318, https://sunnah.com/bukhari:318
[20] Niddah 16b:12, The William Davidson Talmud (Koren – Steinsaltz), https://www.sefaria.org/Niddah.16b.12?lang=en&with=all&lang2=en
[21] Bukhari, Sahih al-Bukhari, hadith 1339, https://sunnah.com/bukhari:1339
[22] Saduq, al-Amali, Assembly 41, https://thaqalayn.net/hadith/29/1/41/2
[23] Sifrei Devarim 305, Rabbi Shraga Silverstein, https://www.sefaria.org/Sifrei_Devarim.305.5?lang=bi&with=all&lang2=en
[24] Bukhari, Sahih al-Bukhari,
[25] Bava Metzia 2:5, Jerusalem Talmud, https://www.sefaria.org/Jerusalem_Talmud_Bava_Metzia.2.5.7?lang=bi
[26] Bukhari, al-Adab al-Mufrad, hadith 592, https://sunnah.com/adab:592
[27] Al-Mutaqqi al-Hindi, Kanz al-`Ummal, hadith 44141, http://shiaonlinelibrary.com/%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%83%D8%AA%D8%A8/2280_%D9%83%D9%86%D8%B2-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%84-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%AA%D9%82%D9%8A-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%87%D9%86%D8%AF%D9%8A-%D8%AC-%D9%A1%D9%A6/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B5%D9%81%D8%AD%D8%A9_122
[28] Bukhari, Sahih al-Bukhari, hadith 3399, https://sunnah.com/bukhari:3399
[29] Joshua Kulp, Pirkei Avot 5, https://www.sefaria.org/Pirkei_Avot.5.5?lang=bi
[30] Kulayni, al-Kafi, Volume 2, page 242, hadith 1, http://shiaonlinelibrary.com/%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%83%D8%AA%D8%A8/1123_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%83%D8%A7%D9%81%D9%8A-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B4%D9%8A%D8%AE-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%83%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%86%D9%8A-%D8%AC-%D9%A2/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B5%D9%81%D8%AD%D8%A9_242
[31] Al-Saffar, Basa’ir al-Darajat, pp. 166, hadith 24, http://shiaonlinelibrary.com/%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%83%D8%AA%D8%A8/1117_%D8%A8%D8%B5%D8%A7%D8%A6%D8%B1-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AF%D8%B1%D8%AC%D8%A7%D8%AA-%D9%85%D8%AD%D9%85%D8%AF-%D8%A8%D9%86-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D8%B3%D9%86-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B5%D9%81%D8%A7%D8%B1/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B5%D9%81%D8%AD%D8%A9_165
[32] Juan Cole, “Peacemaking and Reconciliation: Sulh and Aslaha”, Rethinking the Quran in Late Antiquity, pp. 154-155.
[33] https://x.com/alUkbari/status/1899534617658704343
[34] Gabriel Said Reynolds, The Quran and the Bible: Text and Commentary, pp. 3.
